Ethical Decision Making and Behavior

7 honourable finding qualification and bearing As we pr goice resolving predicaments we scram virtuousity to be less(prenominal)(prenominal) a goal than a path commission, less a terminal figure than a trip, less an inoculation than a process. Ethicist Rushworth Kidder WHATS for wards This chapter surveys the comp whiznts of honorable fashion virtuous predisposition, life sentence-threatening judgment, decenteous motivation, and chaste re institutionaliseationand introduces clayatic attackes to honorable paradox solving. Well p downhearted a carry at four finis- take protrude formats Kidders respectable prevailpoints, the troubling formula, Nashs 12 doubts, and the shell study method.After presenting each approach, Ill discuss its relative advantages and disadvantages. U nder delivering how we coiffe and fol misfortunate through on respectable c regresss is the first mea trustedment to fashioning collapse(p) choices fetching a systematic appro ach is the second. Well search close to(prenominal) of these treads in this chapter. After examining the good closing- qualification process, well see how guidelines or formats nominate guide our h angiotensin converting enzymest deliberations. 235 236 break down III. honest Standards and Strategies sh ars of chaste Action there ar a number of pastures of honorable finality making and fill.For example, tune ethics educators Charles Powers and David Vogel pick out half a dozen chemical elements or elements that underlie clean conclude and air and that be extraly relevant in organizational fructifytings. 1 The first is honorable imagination, the recognition that replicabalance r startine choices and relationships nominate an honorable dimension. The second is good abounding identification and ordering, which, as the name c in either forths, refers to the ability to point measurable issues, determine priorities, and sort out competing values.The triad factor is good evaluation, or victimisation analytical skills to evaluate options. The fourth element is tole rate virtuous disagreement and ambiguity, which arises when motorcoachs disagree rise up-nigh values and melodic phrases of natural process. The fifth is the ability to immix managerial competence with moral competence. This integration involves anticipating deall(a)y honorable dilemmas, hint new(prenominal)s in estimable finding making, and making authoritative every conclusion be contain ons part of an organizations systems and procedures.The sixth and final element is a sense of moral obligation, which serves as a motivating force to secure in moral judgment and to implement decisions. James Rest of the University of atomic number 25 lay outered what whitethorn be the or so widely use case of moral behavior. Rest built his four-component model by working secondward. He started with the expiry outputmoral go throughand then(prenominal) inflexible the steps that bring much(prenominal)(prenominal) behavior. He concluded that ethical action is the end of four psychological subprocesses (1) moral sensitivity (recognition), (2) moral judgment, (3) moral focalise (motivation), and (4) moral character. Component 1 Moral esthesia (Recognition) Moral sensitivity (recognizing the presence of an ethical issue) is the first step in ethical decision making because we brush a side of meatt solve a moral worry unless we first know that one exists. A great umteen moral failures stem from ethical insensitivity. The refuge committee at Ford labour decided non to fix the defective gas tank on the Pinto automobile (see Chapter 2) because members saw no problem with saving money sooner than tender-hearted lives.Wal-Mart was slow to respond to concerns raised by employees, labor classifys, environmentalists, and early(a)s slightly wage violations, sexual discrimination, poor environmental practices, and opposite issues . 3 numerous students, niduse on finishing their degrees, see no problem with cheating. (You outhouse testify your ethical sensitivity by completing the Self-Assessment Moral Sensitivity Scenarios. ) According to Rest, problem recognition pick ups that we encounter how our behavior affects others, find out possible operates of action, and determine theCHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision do and sort237 consequences of each capableness strategy. Empathy and perspective skills ar essential to this component of moral action. If we understand how others cleverness feel or react, we ar to a greater extent sensitive to potential invalidating effects of our choices and fag end better predict the in all trustlihood outcomes of each option. A number of factors prevent us from recognizing ethical issues. We whitethorn non factor ethical considerations into our typical ways of thinking or mental models. We whitethorn be reluctant to use moral terminology (values, in effect(p)i ce, near, aggrieve) to describe our decisions because we call for to avoid contr everywheresy or specialize that keeping silent resulting compel us place strong and capable. 5 We may even deceive ourselves into thinking that we atomic number 18 acting morally when we be intelligibly not, a process called ethical fading. The moral aspects of a decision exceed into the backboneground if we use euphemisms to disguise unethical behavior, numb our consciences through repeat misbehavior, blame others, and claim that only we know the truth. 6 Fortunately, we potty tar admit steps to enhance our ethical sensitivity (and the sensitivity of our buster loss leaders and followers) by doing the following Active listening and role blowouting Imagining other perspectives Stepping back from a location to determine whether it has moral implications Using moral terminology to discuss problems and issues Avoiding euphemisms Refusing to excuse misbehavior Accepting soulfu lnessal obligation Practicing humility and disseminateness to other points of viewIn addition to these steps, we sight in kindred manner growing ethical sensitivity by making an issue more salient. The great the moral devotion of an issue, the more the equivalents ofly it is that decision makers will take note of it and respond ethically. 7 We poop build moral intensity by doing the following Illustrating that the federal agency crumb cause signifi foundationt disability or benefit to m all deal (magnitude of consequences) Establishing that there is loving consensus or agreement that a behavior is moral or immoral (e. g. lawful or illegal, approved or forbidden by a pro association) Demonstrating probability of effect, that the act will happen and will cause ravish or benefit Showing that the consequences will happen soon (temporal immediacy) emphasize social, psychological, physical, or psychological closeness (proximity) with those modify by our actions Proving that one individual or a group will greatly suffer ascribable to a decision (concentration of effect) 238 situation III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Finally, paying circumspection to our emotions put up be an principal(prenominal) clue that we argon faced with an ethical dilemma.Moral emotions ar part of our makeup as humans. 8 These feelings argon triggered even when we do not ask a in-person stake in an event. For example, we may feel angry when reading more or less mis discourse of migrant workers or bounty when we see a picture of a refugee living in a squalid camp. Moral emotions also enfearlessness us to take action that benefits other stack and society as a whole. We ability keep a letter protesting the poor working conditions of migrant laborers, for instance, or devote money to a humanitarian organization working with dis put persons. Anger, disgust, and contempt atomic number 18 other-condemning emotions.They ar raise by unfairness, betrayal, immorality, cruelty, poor public presentation, and status differences. Anger squeeze out motivate us to redress injustices like racism, oppression, and p everyplacety. Disgust en bravenesss us to mold up rewards and punishments to deter inappropriate behaviors. Contempt primarily causes us to step back from others. Shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self- aware emotions that encourage us to adapt the rules and uphold the social order. These feelings are triggered when we violate norms and social conventions, present the wrong image to others, and fail to live up to moral guidelines.Shame and embarrassment ass keep us from engaging in further damaging behavior and may drive us to withdraw from social contact. Guilt motivates us to table service others and to treat them advantageously. Sympathy and compassion are other-suffering emotions. They are elicited when we perceive suffering or sorrow in our fellow human creations. Such feelings encourage us to comfort, jockstrap, and alleviate the pain of others. Gratitude, awe, and nip and tuck are other-praising (positive) emotions that open us up to new opportunities and relationships.They are egg oned when mortal has do round issue on our behalf, when we run across moral beauty (acts of charity, truth, and self-sacrifice, for example), and when we read or hear most moral exemplars (see Chapter 3). Gratitude motivates us to repay others awe and elevation encourage us to become better persons and to take steps to cooperate others. In sum, if we experience anger, disgust, guilt, sympathy, or other moral emotions, the chances are good that there is an ethical dimension to the situation that confronts us. We will pauperization to look further to determine if this is indeed the case.CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision qualification and Behavior239 SELF-ASSESSMENT MORAL SENSITIVITY SCENARIOS Instructions Read each vignette and consider the following statement There are very big ethical aspects to this situa tion. (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) Then briefly explain your rating for each vignette in the space below it. For more reading on the ethical issues raised by the scenarios, see Item 1 under For Further Exploration, Challenge, and Self-Assessment. Vignette 1 One of your around important customers, a medical exam checkup checkup clinic, called yesterday.The clinic had ordered a product 10 years ago (products are normally delivered within 710 days), just it had not arrived. Quickly, you traced the order to the shipping blot. You asked the shipping clerk around the order, and she said, I shipped it 2 days ago As you left the shipping clear upice, you glanced at her desk and saw her shipping receipts. You could clearly see that the order was shipped this morning. You called the client back with the news that the product was on its way. As you talked with the client, you learned that the delay of the product had allowed the condition of some patients to worsen q uite dramatically. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 2 net Monday, you were sitting at your desk examining a request that a customer had just faxed to you. The customer was proposing a project that would make a tremendous enumerate of money for your caller entirely had an extremely demanding prison term schedule.Just as you were about to call the customer and take to the project, one of your employees, Phil, knocked on the door. He entered your office, courteously placed a letter of resignation on your desk, and told you he was sorry, exclusively in two weeks, he 240 department III. Ethical Standards and Strategies would be go to another state to be closer to hi s ailing parents. After he left, you thought about the proposed project and determined that even though Phil would be at calm(p), you could still meet all of the customers deadlines. You called the customer and pass judgment the project. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 3 Earlier today, a salesman who works in Iowa called you and told you about an experience he had last week. One of his customers placed a trivial order of about $1,500 worth of product from corporate provide.The home office immediately shipped the package through a freight follow, and it arrived the adjoining day at the freight companys warehouse in Iowa. The salesman went to the warehouse just a s it was closing and talked to one of the managers. The manager said that everyone had gone home for the day, just he assured him that the package would be delivered outright to his office the next day. The salesman knew that the customer did not requirement the materials for at to the lowest degree another 3 days, precisely he didnt expect to wait.He placed a $20 bill on the counter and asked the warehouse manager one last time if there was anything he could do. The manager plunge the paperwork, got the product from the back of the warehouse, and brought it out to the salesman. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________SOURCE Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Moral awareness and ethical p redispositions analyse the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues. Journal of utilize Psychology, 91, 233243. Published by the American Psychological Association. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior241 Component 2 Moral Judgment Once an ethical problem is identified, decision makers select a course of action from the options generated in Component 1. In other words, they make judgments about what is the right or wrong thing to do in this situation.Moral judgment has generated more query than the other components of Rests model. Investigators have been particularly interested in cognitive moral come upment, the process by which mess develop their moral think abilities over time. Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg argued that individuals advancement through a series of moral compass points just as they do physical ones. 9 Each stage is more advanced than the one forward. Not only do plenty get in more complex argument as they prog ress up the stages, but they also become less self-centered and develop broader definitions of morality.Kohlberg identified leash directs of moral teaching, each divided into two stages. take I, preconventional thinking, is the most primitive and focuses on consequences. This form of moral sympathying is ballpark among children who choose to obey to avoid punishment ( pose 1) or follow the rules in order to meet their interests (Stage 2). Stage 2 thinkers are interested in acquiring a fair deal You help me, and Ill help you. Conventional thinkers (Level II) look to others for guidance when deciding how to act.Stage 3 people emergency to live up to the expectations of those they respect, much(prenominal) as parents, siblings, and friends, and value concern for others and respect. Stage 4 individuals take a somewhat broader perspective, looking to society as a whole for direction. They turn over in following rules at work, for example, and the law. Kohlberg found that most ad ults are Level II thinkers. Level III, postconceptual or scrupulous debate, is the most advanced type of ethical thinking. Stage 5 people are guided by utilitarian principles.They are pertain for the ineluctably of the entire group and want to make sure that rules and laws serve the sterling(prenominal) good for the greatest number. Stage 6 people operate check to internalized, universal principles such(prenominal) as justice, equality, and human dignity. These principles consistently guide their behavior and take precession over the laws of any particular society. According to Kohlberg, fewer than 20% of American adults ever extend to Stage 5, and almost no one move ones Stage 6. Critics take issue with both the philosophical stern of Kohlbergs model and its reliance on concrete stages of moral outgrowth. 0 They contend that Kohlberg ground his postconventional stage on Rawlss justice-asfairness theory and make deontological ethics superior to other ethical approaches. They note that the model applies more to societal issues than to individual ethical decisions. A great many psychologists gain regularize the notion 242PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies that people go through a rigid or big(a) series of moral stages, leaving one stage completely behind out front moving to the next. They argue quite that a person can contract in many ways of thinking about a problem, disregardless of age.Rest (who studied under Kohlberg), Darcia Narvaez, and their colleagues responded to the critics by replacing the hard stages with a staircase of developmental schemes. 11 Schemas are networks of knowledge organized around life events. We use lineations when encountering new situations or information. You are able to master information in new classes, for instance, by using strategies you developed in previous courses. According to this neoKohlbergian approach, decision makers develop more sophisticated moral schemas as they develop. The least sophis ticated schema is based on own(prenominal) interest. people at this level are implicated only with what they may gain or lose in an ethical dilemma. No consideration is open upn to the of necessity of broader society. Those who reason at the next level, the maintaining norms schema, believe they have a moral obligation to maintain social order. They are concerned with following rules and laws and making sure that regulations do to everyone. These thinkers believe that there is a clear hierarchy with make outfully defined roles (e. g. , bossessubordinates, teachersstudents, officers enlisted personnel).The postconventional schema is the most advanced level of moral reasoning. Thinking at this level is not limited to one ethical approach, as Kohlberg argued, but encompasses many different philosophical traditions. Postconventional individuals believe that moral obligations are to be based on shared ideals, should not favor some people at the expense of others, and are open to scr utiny (testing and examination). Such thinkers reason like moral philosophers, looking behind societal norms to determine whether they serve moral purposes. Refer to Leadership ethics at the Movies Michael Clayton for an example of a leader who shifts to a steeper level of moral reasoning. ) Rest developed the formation Issues Test (DIT) to measure moral development. Subjects taking the DIT (and its successor, the DIT-2) respond to six ethical scenarios and then choose statements that dress hat reflect the reasoning they used to come up with their choices. These statements, which correspond to the three levels of moral reasoning, are then s sum totald. In the outstrip-known dilemma, Heinzs wife is dying of cancer and postulate a drug he cannot afford to buy.He must decide whether to skid the drug to save her life. Hundreds of studies using the DIT reveal that moral reasoning generally increases with age and education. 12 Undergraduate and graduate students benefit from their educational experiences in general and ethical coursework in particular. When education s slip aways, moral development s carousels. In addition, moral development is a universal concept, crossing cultural boundaries. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior243 Principled leaders can boost the moral judgment of a group by embodying(a) members to adopt more sophisticated ethical schemas. 3 Models of cognitive development provide important insights into the process of ethical decision making. First, contextual variables play an important role in shaping ethical behavior. Most people look to others as well as to rules and regulations when making ethical determinations. They are more likely to make wise moral judgments if coworkers and supervisors encourage and model ethical behavior. As leaders, we need to build ethical environments. (Well take a closer look at the formation of ethical groups and organizations in Chapters 8 and 9. ) Second, education fosters moral reasoning.P ursuing a bachelors, masters, or doctorial degree can promote your moral development. As part of your education, focus as much attention as you can on ethics (i. e. , take ethics courses, discuss ethical issues in groups and classes, reflect on the ethical challenges you experience in internships). Third, a broader perspective is better. Consider the need and viewpoints of others outside your immediate group or organization determine what is good for the local area, the bombasticr society, and the global community. Fourth, moral principles produce superior solutions.The best ethical thinkers base their choices on widely accepted ethical guidelines. Do the analogous by drawing on important ethical approaches such as utilitarianism, the categorical imperative, altruism, communitarianism, and justice-as-fairness theory. LEADERSHIP ETHICS AT THE MOVIES MICHAEL CLAYTON Key border Members George Clooney, Tilda Swinton, Tom Wilkinson, Sydney Pollack Synopsis George Clooney stars as Mi chael Clayton, the synthetic heroin for a large sensitive York City soaked. Clayton takes care of any messes involving clients, like hit-andrun accidents and shoplifting charges.When the firms top litigator (played by Wilkinson) begins to work for the other side in a $3 billion lawsuit, Clayton must get him back on his medications and under restrain. Karen Crowder (Swinton) is foreland counsel for the conglomerate universe sued for manufacturing a toxic chemical. She decides to permanently silence both the rogue lawyer and Clayton. The fixer, whose life and reputation have been tarnished by a series of poor ethical and line of credit choices, must now decide how to respond to illegal wiretapping and murder. Swinton won a Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her (Continued) 44PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies (Continued) performance as the ambitious attorney who decides that corporate survival takes precedence over human life. Rating R for language, including sexual dial ogue Themes moral reasoning, the pitch-dark side of leadership, corruption, greed, character, deception Discussion Starters 1. What factors motivated Clayton to become a fixer and the conglomerates chief counsel to protect her company at any cut through? 2. Was it unethical for the law firms top litigator to begin to work for the plaintiffs? wherefore or why not? 3.What accounts for Claytons shift to a higher level of moral reasoning? Component 3 Moral Focus (Motivation) After concluding what course of action is best, decision makers must be focused (motivated to follow through) on their choices. Moral values practically conflict with other significant values. For instance, an method of accounting supervisor who wants to blow the whistle on illegal accounting practices at her firm must balance her believe to do the right thing against her desire to keep her job, provide income for her family, and maintain relationships with her fellow workers.She will discover the accounting abuses to outside authorities only if moral considerations take precedence over these competing priorities. Psychologists string out over that self-interest and fraud undermine moral motivation. 14 nearlytimes individuals genuinely want to do the right thing, but their faithfulness is overpowered when they discover that they will have to pay a personalised cost for acting in an ethical manner. Others never intend to follow an ethical course of action but engage in moral hypocrisy instead. These decision makers want to appear moral while, if possible, avoiding the cost of actually macrocosm moral. 15 In experimental settings, they plead that assignments should be distributed fairly but then assign themselves the most desirable tasks while giving less desirable chores to others. Both self-interest and hypocrisy encourage leaders to set their moral principles aside. For example, corporate executives may declare that lower-level employees deserve higher wages. However, whether they in reality want to help workers or CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior245 just want to appear as if they do, these executives are not likely to pay employees more if it office that they will earn less as a result.Rewards play an important role in ethical follow-through. People are more likely to give ethical values top priority when rewarded through raises, promotions, public recognition, and other means for doing so. Conversely, moral motivation drops when the reward system reinforces unethical behavior. 16 Unfortunately, misplaced rewards are all too common, as in the case of electronics retailers who reward employees for selling dearly-won extended warranties on new products. Such warranties are generally a bad deal for consumers. Emotions also play a part in moral motivation. 7 As state in front, sympathy, disgust, guilt, and other moral emotions prompt us to take action. We can use their motivational force to help us punish wrongdoers, address injustice, p rovide assistance, and so on. Other researchers report that positive emotions such as joy and happiness make people more optimistic and more likely to live out their moral choices and to help others. Depression, on the other hand, lowers motivation, and jealousy, rage, and envy make to lying, revenge, stealing, and other antisocial behaviors.To increase your moral motivation and the moral motivation of followers, seek out and create ethically rewarding environments. occupy sure the reward system of an organization supports ethical behavior before joining it as an employee or a volunteer. Try to cringe the costs of behaving morally by instituting policies and procedures that make it easier to report unethical behavior, combat discrimination, and so on. Work to align rewards with coveted behavior in your topical organization. Be concerned about how goals are reached. If all else fails, reward yourself.Take pride in following through on your choices and on living up to your self- image as a person of integrity. blame into moral emotions while making a conscious effort to control disallow feelings and to put yourself in a positive frame of intellect. Component 4 Moral Character Executing the plan of action takes character. Moral agents have to overcome opposition, resist distractions, cope with fatigue, and develop tactics and strategies for make their goals. This helps explain why there is only a moderate correlation coefficient betwixt moral judgment and moral behavior.Many times deciding does not lead to doing. The positive character traits described in Chapter 3 contribute to ethical follow-through. Courage helps leaders implement their plans despite the risks and costs of doing so while prudence helps them choose the best course of 246PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies action. Integrity encourages leaders to be true to themselves and their choices. Humility forces leaders to address limitations that might prevent them from taking action. Rev erence promotes self-sacrifice. Optimism equips leaders to persist in the face of obstacles and difficulties.Compassion and justice focus the attention of leaders on the needs of others quite an than on personal priorities. In addition to virtues, other personal characteristics contribute to moral action. 18 Those with a strong will, as well as confidence in themselves and their abilities, are more likely to persist. The same is true for those with an internal locus of control. Internally lie people (internals) believe that they have control over their lives and can determine what happens to them. Externally oriented people ( internationals) believe that life events are beyond their control and are the product of urgency or luck instead.Because they have personal debt instrument for their actions, internals are more motivated to do what is right. Externals are more capable to situational pressures and therefore less likely to persist in ethical tasks. winning implementation al so requires competence. For instance, modifying the organizational reward system may inculpate researching, organizing, arguing, networking, and relationship-building skills. These skills are put to maximum use when actors have an in-depth understanding of the organizational context important policies, the groups history and culture, informal leaders, and so on.Following the character-building guidelines presented in Chapter 3 will go a long way to helping you build the virtues you need to put your moral choices into action. You may also want to look at your past performance to see why you succeeded or failed. Believe that you can have an impact. Otherwise, you are probably not going to carry through when obstacles surface. Develop your skills so that you can better put your moral choice into action and master the context in which you operate. Decision-Making Formats Decision-making guidelines or formats can help us make better ethical choices.Taking a systematic approach encourage s teams and individuals to carefully define the problem, gather information, apply ethical standards and values, identify and evaluate alternative courses of action, and follow through on their choices. Theyre also better equipped to defend their decisions. Four ethical decision-making formats are described in the pages to come. All four approaches are useful. You may want to use just one or a confederacy of all of them. The particular format you use is not as important as using a systematic approach to moral reasoning. You can practice these guidelines by applying them to Case Study 7. and the scenarios described at the end of the chapter. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior247 You will probably find it difficult at first to follow a format. Thats because using a format takes a significant occur of effort, and we are used to making rapid judgments mentally when faced with ethical choices. 19 Without being conscious of the fact, we firmly invoke decision-making rules we have learned though experience, such as it is forever and a day good to obey authority or always be as fair as possible. Or we intuitively come to a rapid decision based on our emotions and cultural background.Often these quick responses are good ones. But not always. There may be times, for instance, when authority needs to be disobeyed or fairness must be set aside for compassion. Our intuitions are wrong when they are based on mistaken cultural beliefs. For example, many Americans used to immediately condemn motley couples. As time passed, society recognized that this reception was biased, unfounded, and unjust. I suggest that, when confronted with ethical dilemmas like those in Case Study 7. 1, you write mastered your initial reaction before using a format. Later equivalence your final decision to your immediate response.Your ultimate conclusion after(prenominal) following a series of steps may be the same as your first judgment. Or you might find that you come to a i mportantly different decision. In any case, you should be comfortable with your solution because your deliberations were sensible both by your preconscious experiences, emotions, and intuitions as well as by your conscious reasoning. 20 CASE STUDY 7. 1 PARKING LOT dead reckoning Over the past year several employees of a national fast-food cooking stove have been shot or hurt when intervening in fights or crimes occurring in the restaurants parking lots.As a result, corporate headquarters drafted a new policy that forbids workers from leaving the building in such emergencies, instructing them instead to dial 911. Those who violate the policy will immediately be fired. Imagine that you are day-shift manager at one of the companys locations where a slam has occurred. You call 911 but notice that the victim, who is lying right outside the door, is bleeding profusely. No one else is stepping up to help the injured man. You have first-aid training and believe you can stabilize his co ndition before the ambulance arrives.The shooter has apparently fled the scene. Would you disobey company policy and help the shooting victim? 248PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Kidders Ethical Checkpoints Ethicist Rushworth Kidder suggests that nightclub steps or checkpoints can help bring order to other confusing ethical issues. 21 1. Recognize that there is a problem. This step is critically important because it forces us to acknowledge that there is an issue that deserves our attention and helps us separate moral questions from disagreements about manners and social conventions.For example, being late for a party may be bad manners and violate cultural expectations. However, this act does not translate into a moral problem involving right or wrong. On the other hand, deciding whether to accept a kickback from a supplier is an ethical dilemma. 2. Determine the actor. Once weve determined that there is an ethical issue, we then need to decide who is responsible for a ddressing the problem. I may be concerned that the owner of a local business treats his employees poorly. Nonetheless, unless I work for the company or buy its products, there is subaltern I can do to address this situation. . Gather the relevant facts. Adequate, accurate, and accredited information is important for making effective decisions of all kinds, including ethical ones. expound do make a difference. In deciding whether it is just to appropriate a student for fighting, for instance, a school principal will want to hear from teachers, classmates, and the offender to determine the seriousness of the offense, the students reason for fighting, and the outcome of the altercation. The administrator will probably be more mild if this is the offenders first offense and he was defending himself. 4.Test for right-versus-wrong issues. A choice is generally a poor one if it gives you a negative, gut-level reaction (the stench test), would make you uncomfortable if it appeared on t he front page of tomorrows newspaper (the frontpage test), or would violate the moral code of someone that you care a lot about (the Mom test). If your decision violates any of these criteria, you had better reconsider. 5. Test for right-versus-right values. Many ethical dilemmas pit two core values against each other. Determine whether two good or right values are in conflict with one another in this situation.Right-versus-right value clashes include the following ? Truth telling versus loyalty to others and institutions. intercourse the truth may threaten our allegiance to another person or to an organization, such as when leaders and followers are faced with the decision of whether to blow the whistle on organizational misbehavior (see Chapter 5). Kidder believes that truth versus loyalty is the most common type of conflict involving two deeply held values. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior249 ? Personal needs versus the needs of the community.Our desire to serve o ur immediate group or ourselves can run counter to the needs of the larger group or community. ? Short-term benefits versus long negative consequences. Sometimes satisfying the immediate needs of the group (giving a mesomorphic pay raise to employees, for example) can lead to long-term negative consequences (endangering the futurity of the business). ? Justice versus mercy. Being fair and even-handed may conflict with our desire to video display love and compassion. 6. Apply the ethical standards and perspectives. Apply the ethical principle that is most relevant and useful to this specific issue.Is it communitarianism? Utilitarianism? Kants categorical imperative? A combination of perspectives? 7. Look for a third way. Sometimes countingly contrary values can be resolved through compromise or the development of a creative solution. Negotiators much seek a third way to bring competing factions together. Such was the case in the deliberations that produced the Camp David peace accord. Egypt demanded that Israel return land on the West Bank seized in the 1967 War. Israel resisted because it cute a buffer zone to protect its security.The dispute was settled when Egypt promise that it would not attack Israel again. Assured of safety, the Israelis agreed to return the territory to Egypt. 22 8. Make the decision. At some point we need to step up and make the decision. This seems a given (after all, the point of the whole process is to reach a conclusion). However, we may be mentally exhausted from grappler with the problem, get caught up in the act of digest, or lack the necessary courage to come to a decision. In Kidders words, At this point in the process, theres little to do but decide.That requires moral couragean attribute essential to leadership and one that, along with reason, distinguishes humanity most sharply from the animal world. Little wonder, then, that the exercise of ethical decision-making is often seen as the highest fulfillment of the hu man condition. 23 9. Revisit and reflect on the decision. goldbrick from your choices. Once youve moved on to other issues, stop and reflect. What lessons emerged from this case that you can apply to future decisions? What ethical issues did it raise? Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) Is primitive Considers problem ownership 50PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Emphasizes the importance of getting the facts straight Recognizes that dilemmas can involve rightright as well as rightwrong choices Encourages the search for creative solutions Sees ethical decision making as a learning process Weaknesses (Cons) It is not calorie-free to determine who has the tariff for solving a problem The facts are not always available, or there may not be enough time to gather them Decisions beart always lead to action There is a lot to be said for Kidders approach to ethical decision making.For one thing, he seems to cover all the bases, rise with defining the issue all the way thr ough to learning from the situation after the dust has settled. He acknowledges that there are some problems that we cant do much about and that we need to pay particular attention to gathering as much information as possible. The ethicist recognizes that some decisions involve deciding between two goods and leaves the door open for creative solutions. Making a choice can be an act of courage, as Kidder points out, and we can apply lessons learned in one dilemma to future problems.On the flip side, some of the strengths of Kidders model can also be seen as weaknesses. As well see in Chapter 10, determining responsibility or ownership of a problem is getting harder in an more and more interdependent world. Who is responsible for poor labor conditions in third-world countries, for instance? The manufacturing business? The subcontractor? The store that sells the products make in sweatshops? Those who buy the items? Kidder also seems to assume that leaders will have the time to gather necessary information. Unfortunately, in situations like that described in Case Study 7. 1, time is in goldbrick supply.Finally, the model seems to equate deciding with doing. As we saw in our earlier discussion of moral action, we can decide on a course of action but not follow through. Kidder is right to say that making ethical choices takes courage. However, it takes even more courage to put the choice into effect. The distressing Formula Media ethicist Louis Alvin Day of Louisiana State University developed the dreary formula in order to build important elements of critical thinking into moral reasoning. Critical thinking is a rational approach to decision making CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior251 that emphasizes careful analysis and evaluation.It begins with an understanding of the subject to be evaluated moves to identifying the issues, information, and assumptions surrounding the problem and then concludes with evaluating alternatives and arrive at a conc lusion. 24 Each stage of the no-account formulasituation definition, analysis of the situation, decisionaddresses a component of critical thinking. (See Box 7. 1. ) To demonstrate this model, Ill use a conflict involving compulsory inoculations of wellness care workers. 25 Situation Definition health care professionals are at risk for contracting infectious diseases and spreading them to their patients.For that reason, the U. S. government determined that health care workers should be one of the first groups to receive flu vaccines such as the one designed to combat the H1N1 (swine flu) computer virus. Vaccination can reduce the likelihood of catching the flu by 70%80% and is one of the best ways to prevent a pandemic. However, fewer than half of U. S. health workers get flu shots every year (rates are also low in Great Britain and Hong Kong). medical checkup personnel who fail to be vaccinate often do so for the same reasons as other Americans.They dont like shots, it is n ot convenient to get them, they claim they rarely get sick, or they believe the vaccine makes them ill (though scientists deny that this happens). Health officials have tried a variety of strategies to increase the percentage of doctors and nurses receiving inoculations, including promotional campaigns and prize drawings. However, these voluntary efforts have fallen short. Concerned about low participation rates, particularly in light of the danger posed by the swine flu, Hospital Corporation of America, MedStar Health (Maryland), Virginia Mason (Seattle, WA), BJC HealthCare (St.Louis, MO), and the state of New York began obligatory vaccination programs. A number of clinics and doctors offices followed suit. Employees were told they would lose their jobs if they did not get the vaccine. Exceptions were made for those likely to have an allergic reaction (eggs are used in the production of the shots) or those with religious objections. Some health care workers and their unions immed iately protested the stricter vaccination policies, labeling such programs as curious violations of individual rights. Day says that the ethical question to be addressed should be as narrow as possible.In our example, we will seek to answer the following query Are mandatory flu-vaccination policies for health care workers ethically confirm? 252PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies BOX 7. 1 THE MORAL REASONING touch on Situation Definition Description of facts Identification of principles and values Statement of ethical issue or question Analysis Weighing of competing principles and values retainer of external factors Examination of duties to various parties Discussion of applicable ethical theories Decision Rendering of moral agents decision Defense of that decision based on moral theory SOURCE From Day.Ethics in Media communications Cases and Controversies, 5E. Copyright 2006 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission www. cengage. com/permissions . Analysis valuation of Values and Principles. Competing principles and values are clearly present in this situation. On the one side, medical administrators and public health officials put a high value on the responsibility of medical personnel to patients and argue that mandatory vaccinations will save lives, particularly those of vulnerable populations like the sick, those with compromised immune systems, heavy(predicate) women, the very young, and the elderly.In requiring mandatory vaccinations in New York, the states health commissioner asserted The rationale begins with health-care ethics, which is The patients well-being comes ahead of the personal preferences of health-care workers. 26 (The commissioner later rescinded his edict when there was a shortage of the vaccine. ) The chief medical officer of MedStar Health said the decision to require vaccinations is all about patient safety. On the other side of the debate are individuals, employee unions, and groups CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior253 who put their priority on individual rights.They believe that making flu shots a condition of economic consumption takes away the right to make personal medical decisions, and they have concerns about the safety of the vaccines despite the assurances of medical experts. Opponents also worry that mandatory programs will spread from the health care sector into other areas of society. Said a representative of an organization wanting to limit government expansion, You start with health-care workers but then expand that umbrella to make it mandatory for everybody. Its all part of an encroachment on our liberties. 27 External Factors.Some flu strains, like H1N1, pose greater risks than other strains and spread more rapidly, making vaccinations even more important. Medical employees already have to be inoculated for other conditions like mumps, measles, and tuberculosis, and there havent been widespread protests about these requirements. In additio n, medical personnel have to follow such mandatory safety procedures as washing their work force before surgery. Vaccinations appear to be a safety measure like hand washing. However, past inoculation programs have made some medical professionals skeptical about current efforts.Earlier vaccines did make recipients rude(a) and could cause mild flu-like symptoms. The H1N1 vaccine seemed to be rushed into production, raising concerns that recipients were help as guinea pigs. Nurses, doctors, and home health givers, like other Americans, are increasingly worried about substances they put in their bodies. Moral Duties or Loyalties. Professor Day borrows from theologian Ralph Potter for this part of his model. Potter believes we need to take into account important duties or loyalties when making ethical choices. 8 In this case, the following duties have to be kept in mind Loyalty to self (individual conscience) Loyalty to patients Loyalty to vulnerable populations Loyalty to fel low employees Loyalty to others in the same profession Loyalty to the public Medical officials seem primarily concerned for patients, vulnerable populations, and the larger community. Low vaccination rates threaten patients and clients and help the virus spread. Health care workers who baulk flu shots also damage the credibility of the medical profession. Why should patients be immunized if their doctors and nurses dont think it is safe 54PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies or necessary to do so? Vaccination objectors are more concerned for their individual rights and, in some cases, their personal safety. They seem to overlook their primary duty, which is to serve their patients. Yet not all appear to be acting out of selfish motives. Some resistors are concerned about setting a precedent that could reduce the rights of their fellow citizens in the years to come. Moral Theories. Each of the ethical perspectives outlined in Chapter 5 can be utilise to this dilemma.From a u tilitarian perspective, the benefit of protect personal rights has to be weighed against the dangers of spreading the flu virus. However, the immediate benefits of slowing the virus also need to be weighed against the long-term costsloss of individual rights and government intrusion. Based on Kants categorical imperative, we could ask if we would want everyone to be vaccinated (probably) or if we would want everyone to refuse to be vaccinated (probably not). However, employees who resist the mandatory shots should carry through on their decision regardless of the consequences, such as losing their jobs.Rawlss theory could be applied to say that required vaccinations are reassert because they protect the least advantaged members of society. Communitarianism also seems to support the mandatory vaccination position. Medical leaders put their emphasis on responsibility to patients, vulnerable groups, and the public. Objectors seem to emphasize individual rights rather than duties. Advo cates of mandatory vaccinations have a stronger altruistic focus because such efforts are designed to reduce sickness and suffering. Opponents may argue, however, that they are demonstrating concern by protect the rights of others.Decision Decisions often emerge out of careful definition and analysis of the problem. It may be clear which course of action is best after external constraints, principles, duties, and moral theories are identified and evaluated. In our example, mandatory flu vaccination programs for health care workers appear to be morally justified. Such programs put the needs of others first and reduce suffering and death. They seem consistent with other requirements placed on health care workers and support the patient-focused mission of the medical profession.Health care employees should prevent sickness, not spread it. This option also seems to be best supported by moral theory. Nonetheless, opponents of mandatory vaccination programs are right to point out that we should be cautious about requiring health CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior255 treatments. Just because mandatory influenza vaccinations are justified for health care workers does not mean that we should require all citizens to be vaccinated (thats a different question for analysis) or force citizens into other medical treatments. Balance SheetAdvantages (Pros) Encourages orderly, systematic reasoning Incorporates situation definition, duties, and moral theories Disadvantages (Cons) Failure to reach consensus Limits creativity Ignores implementation The SAD formula does encourage careful reasoning by building in key elements of the critical thinking process. Following the formula keeps decision makers from reach hasty decisions. Instead of jumping immediately to solutions, they must carefully identify elements of the situation, examine and evaluate ethical alternatives, and then reach a conclusion.Three elements of the SAD formula are particularly praiseworthy. Fi rst, the formula recognizes that the keys to solving a problem often lie in clearly identifying and describing it. Groups are far less likely to go astray when members clearly outline the question they are to answer. Second, Days formula highlights duties or loyalties. In the case of vaccinations, prioritizing loyalties is key to supporting or opposing mandatory vaccination programs. Third, the formula incorporates moral theories directly into the decisionmaking process. The strengths of the SAD model must be balanced against some troubling weaknesses.Day implies that a clear choice will emerge after the problem is defined and analyzed. Nevertheless, that may not always be the case. even in our example, there is room for dispute. plot of ground it appears as if mandatory vaccinations are morally justified, those who put a high value on personal freedoms will likely remain unconvinced. They raise valid concerns about the long-term impact of such programs as well. Focusing on a narro wly defined question may exclude creative options and make it hard to apply principles from one decision to other settings. Finally, the formula leaves out the important implementation stage. 56PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Nashs 12 Questions Ethics consultant Laura Nash offers 12 questions that can help businesses and other groups identify the responsibilities composite in making moral choices. 29 She argues that discussions based on these queries can be useful even if the group doesnt reach a conclusion. Managers who answer the questions surface ethical concerns that might otherwise remain hidden, identify common moral problems, clarify gaps between stated values and performance, and explore a variety of alternatives. 1. Have you defined the problem accurately?The ethical decision-making process begins with assembling the facts. Determine how many employees will be affected by layoffs, how much the cleanup of toxic materials will cost, or how many people have been in jured by faulty products. Finding out the facts can help defuse the emotionalism of some issues (perhaps the damage is not as great as first feared). 2. How would you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence? Asking how others might feel forces self-examination. From a companys point of view, expanding a local plant may make good sense by increasing production and efficiency.Government officials and neighbors might have an entirely different perspective. A larger plant means more workers clogging already overcrowded roads and contributing to urban sprawl. For example, considering the companys point of view may impact the decision you reach in Focus on Follower Ethics Paying abide Microsoft on page 258. 3. How did this situation occur in the first place? This question separates the symptoms from the disease. Lying, cheating customers, and strained labor relations are generally symptoms of deeper problems.Firing an employee for unethical behavior is a temporary solution. Probe to discover the be causes. For example, many dubious accounting practices are the result of pressure to produce high quarterly profits. 4. To whom and to what do you give your loyalties as a person or group and as a member of the organization? As we saw in Chapter 1, conflicts of loyalty are hard to sort through. However, wrestling with the problem of ultimate loyalty (Work group? Family? Self? Corporation? ) can clarify the values operating in an ethical dilemma. 5. What is your intention in making this decision? . How does this intention compare with the likely results? These questions probe both the groups intentions and the likely products. Honorable motives CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior257 dont guarantee positive results. Make sure that the outcomes reflect your motivations. 7. Whom could your decision or action injure? Too often groups consider possible injury only after being sued. Try, in advance, to determine harmful consequences. What wil l happen if customers ignore label warnings and spread your pesticide indiscriminately, for example?Will the guns you manufacture end up in the hands of urban gang members? Based on these determinations, you may decide to abdicate your plans to make these items or revise the way they are marketed. 8. Can you engage the affected parties in a discussion of the problem before you make your decision? Talking to affected parties is one way to make sure that you understand how your actions will influence them. Few of us would want other people to decide whats in our best interest. Yet we often push forward with projects that assume we know whats in the best interests of others. 9.Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period of time as it seems now? Make sure that your choice will stand the test of time. What seem like compelling reasons for a decision may not seem so important months or years later. Consider the U. S. decision to invade Iraq, for instance. Ame rican intelligence experts and political leaders tied Saddam Hussein to terrorist groups and claimed that he was hiding weapons of mass destruction. After the invasion, no solid links between Iraqis and international terrorists or weapons of mass destruction were discovered.Our decision to wage this war doesnt appear as justified now as it did in the months leading up to the conflict. 10. Could you disclose without qualm your decision or action to your boss, your CEO, the board of directors, your family, or society as a whole? No ethical decision is too trivial to escape the disclosure test. If you or your group would not want to disclose this action, then youd better reevaluate your choice. 11. What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? Misunderstood? What you intend may not be what the public perceives (see Questions 5 and 6).If your company is a notorious polluter, contributions to local arts groups may be seen as an contract to divert attention from your firms poor environmental record, not as a generous civic gesture. 12. Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand? Moral consistency is critical, but is there any basis for making an exception? Dorm rules might require that visiting hours end at midnight on weekdays. Yet, as a resident assistant, is there any time when you would be willing to overlook violations? During finals week? On the evening before classes start?When dorm residents and visitors are working on class projects? 258PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) Highlights the importance of gathering facts Encourages perspective taking Forecasts results and consequences over time Disadvantages (Cons) Is extremely time consuming May not always reach a conclusion Ignores implementation Like the ethical checkpoints, the 12 questions highlight the importance of problem identification and information gathering. They go a step further, however, by encouraging us to engage i n perspective taking.We need to see the problem from the other partys point of view, consider the possible injury we might cause, invite others to give us feedback, and consider how our actions will be perceived. We also need to interpret results and take a longterm perspective, imagining how our decisions will stand the test of time. Stepping back can keep us from making choices we might regret later. For example, the decision to test nuclear weapons on U. S. soil without warning citizens may have seemed justified to officials waging the Cold War. However, now even the federal government admits that these tests were immoral. NW E FOCUS ON FOLLOWER ETHICS PAYING BACK MICROSOFT? S Software giant Microsoft made an embarrassing error when it engaged in the first widespread layoffs in the firms history. Company officials overpaid an medium of $4,000$5,000 to 25 out of the first 1,400 workers it furloughed. After discovering the error, the firm sent a letter asking for repayment from t he 25 laid-off workers, requesting a check or money order and apologizing for the inconvenience. Contents of the letter soon appeared on the Internet and in the national media. Microsoft officials then backed off their attempts to get the money back.According to a company spokesperson, This was a mistake on our part. We should have handled this situation in a more thoughtful manner. We are stretchability out to those impacted to relay that we will not seek any payment from CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior259 those individuals. 1 While Microsoft decided to drop the matter because of negative publicity, the fact remains that some employees received more than they were promised. Except for a clerical error, the company did postcode wrong and has a legal right to ask for restitution.One outplacement expert noted that just because Microsoft is a large company doesnt mean it should have to automatically pay the cost for this mistake. What if theyd put an extra three zeros on it? he wondered. Of course theyd expect to get it back. 2 If you were one of the laid-off workers overpaid by Microsoft, would you give the money back? Why or why not? Would your response be different if the tote up of the overpayment was much bigger and the company much smaller? Notes 1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. 2. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. Sources Chan, S. P. 2009, May 6). Microsoft may not be done cutting jobs. The Seattle Times, p. A1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. I suspect that some groups will be frustrated by the amount of time it takes to answer the 12 questions. Not only is the model detailed, but discussing the problem with affected parties could take a series of meetings over a period of weeks and months. Complex issues such as determining who should clean up river pollution involve a variety of constituencies with very different agendas (government agenci es, company representatives, citizens groups, conservation clubs).Some decision makers may also be put off by the models ambiguity. Nash admits that experts may define problems differently, that there may be exceptions to the decision, and that groups may use the procedure and never reach a conclusion. Finally, none of the questions use the ethical standards we identified in Chapter 5 or address the problem of implementing the choice once it is made. The Case Study rule The case study method is widely used for making medical diagnoses. At many hospitals, groups made up of doctors, nurses, and other staff members 260PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies eet regularly to talk about particularly troublesome cases. They may be unable to determine the exact nature of the illness or how to best treat a patient. Many of these deliberations involve ethical issues such as whether to keep a terminally ill person on life support or how to respond to patients who demand unnecessary tests and procedures. The group solicits a variety of viewpoints and gathers as much information as possible. Members engage in analogical reasoning, comparing the specifics of a particular case with kindred cases by describing the patient, her illness, and relationships with her family.Instead of focusing on how universal principles and standards can be applied in this situation, hospital personnel are more concerned with the details of the case itself. Participants balance competing perspectives and values, reach tentative conclusions, and look for similarities between the current case and earlier ones. Medical ethicist and communication scholar David H. smith argues that the case-based approach is a powerful technique because it is based on record or story. 30 When decision makers describe cases, they are telling stories.These narratives say as much about the storyteller as they do about the reality of the case. Facts are not objective truth but rather are reflections of what the n arrator thinks is true and important. Stories knit these perceptions into a coherent whole. When discussing the fate of patients, it is not enough to know medical data. Hospital personnel need to learn about the patients history, the costs and benefits of various treatment options, and other factors such as the wishes of relatives and legal issu